Name :-Niyatiben A. Pathak
Batch :- 2017-2019
Enrollement no. . 2069108420180042
Paper : English language teaching
Guide : Vaidehi Hariyani ma’am
Submitted to : Department Of English MKBU
Words....3240
Here, is my assignment on Second language acquisition & English for specific purpose …..
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Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill. .. Stephan kreshen
Introduction
Stephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert in the field of linguistics, specializing in theories of language acquisition and development. Much of his recent research has involved the study of non-English and bilingual language acquisition. During the past 20 years, he has published well over 100 books and articles and has been invited to deliver over 300 lectures at universities throughout the United States and Canada.
This is a brief description of Krashen's widely known and well accepted theory of second language acquisition, which has had a large impact in all areas of second language research and teaching since the 1980s.
Description of Krashen's Theory of Second Language AcquisitionKrashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:
the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis;
the Monitor hypothesis;
the Natural Order hypothesis;
the Input hypothesis;
and the Affective Filter hypothesis.
The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners. According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act.
The "learned system" or "learning" is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'. (See here our in-depth analysis of the Acquisition/Learning hypothesis and its implications).
The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: that is, the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness, and he/she knows the rule.
It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language performance. According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is - or should be - minor, being used only to correct deviations from "normal" speech and to give speech a more 'polished' appearance.
Krashen also suggests that there is individual variation among language learners with regard to 'monitor' use. He distinguishes those learners that use the 'monitor' all the time (over-users); those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those learners that use the 'monitor' appropriately (optimal users). An evaluation of the person's psychological profile can help to determine to what group they belong. Usually extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users. Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the "monitor".
The Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings (Dulay & Burt, 1974; Fathman, 1975; Makino, 1980 cited in Krashen, 1987) which suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the learners' age, L1 background, conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition. Krashen however points out that the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.
The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language – how second language acquisition takes place. The Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence.
Finally, the fifth hypothesis, the Affective Filter hypothesis, embodies Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can com bine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.
English for specific purpose !!
This 1978 publication focuses on English for academic purposes (EAP) also referred to at the time as English for educational purposes, and comprises seven chapters. Hawkey’s Introduction notes ‘the significant agreement in all the papers on the importance of designing courses to train specific and relevant study as well as purely communication skills'.
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), ESP was not a ‘planned and coherent movement’ but it has emerged because of numerous unified trends based on notably three main reasons that have been identified in the emergence of ESP: the demands of a Brave New World, a revolution in linguistics, and focus on the learner. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) have emphasized two key historical periods that gave life into ESP. In 1945, it was the end of the Second World War which had brought with it an ” … age of enormous and unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical and economic activity on an international scale…” which was then had given rise to the creation of two forces: technology and commerce world which then had initiated a ‘demand for an international language’. Because of the importance of technology and commerce in this period, the demand for English to suit those needs had vastly expanded and people now learn English because of very specific reason: because English had become the language of technology and commerce. Long time ago, the learning of English (or other language) was never this lucid. People used to ponder why it is essential to learn a language, now that English had become so powerful and influential; corporate people used English to promote their product globally, technicians who had to use English to read the manuals, researchers who needed English to be able to read textbooks and journals in English for their research. Because English was crucially imperative, it had created a brand new type of learners who indeed understand why they need English for and they surely know how to strike while the iron is hot. In addition, the Oil Crisis of the early 1970s was one of the factors that contributed to the development. English had suddenly become a big business and due to this it had created time and money constraints that lead to ‘the need of cost effective courses which clearly defined goals’. English has now become ‘subject to the wishes, needs and demands of people other than language teachers’ (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987, p.7).
Let us get back to the questions asked at the beginning: What is ESP and why ESP? Even though it has been explained at the beginning, the need of additional information regarding ESP is still needed in order to have a better understanding towards this subject. It is quite obvious that the learners of English as a Second/ Foreign Language are quite numerous than any other language however quite a number of them do not understand why the need to learn it. Knowing the fact that English is an important world language, this motivation drive them to learn English and besides that some study English because they are forced to do so as it is a compulsory subject at school or even in the university. Taking Malaysia as the nearest and obvious example, English language has been made mandatory since the starting of primary school, which is in Standard One. In fact some kindergartens in Malaysia have started to teach English compulsorily to their kids from the very beginning of school life whether the kids like it or not. On the other hand there are also quite a number of learners of English who learn English because of specific reasons. For example, one would need the knowledge of English in order to survive socially and professionally in an English speaking community. Therefore, the guiding principle proposed for ESP by Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 8) “Tell me what you need English for and I will tell you what English you need” is precisely true to its meaning within the ESP context. I am absolutely agreed to their saying because we can only give what they (learners) want by knowing what they want.
Tony Dudley-Evans highlights the characteristics of ESP…..
Absolute Characteristics
ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learner;
ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves;
ESP is centred on the language (grammar, lexis, register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these activities.
Variable Characteristics
ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines;
ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general English;
ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level;
ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners (1998, pp. 4-5).
We have now explored English for Specific Purposes (ESP) comprehensively and thoroughly starting from its history and development and we have had better understandings towards this area of English. We could say that English for Specific Purposes has developed out of the need to provide specific courses for students who had to learn English more as a means to an end rather than for the sake of learning English itself. In this case ESP is based largely on the goals and requirements that students have because when students have little or no basic knowledge in English, then teaching it for a specific purpose would be almost impossible. All in all, ESP can be simply deduced as the use of specific variety of English in a specific context to meet specific needs of the learner. The guiding principle proposed for ESP by Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 8) “Tell me what you need English for and I will tell you what English you need” is in perfect accord with the above statement along with the history and development of ESP. Based on the history and development of ESP discussed above, we can see that the learners’ needs of English play an important role in developing and designing the learning materials to fulfill their specific needs. (hariyani)
- Selecting and Developing ESP Materials Sysoyev (2000) argues that for many teachers, selection of teaching materials is based on their availability. Furthermore, chosen materials determine the content of the course. Quite often it serves as a justification and explanation of the use of the same syllabus with different students. In student-center approach, the appropriateness of the materials includes student comfort and familiarity with the materials, language level, interest, and relevance.
1. Authentic materials The important issue in ESP materials is authenticity. The language in ESP should be as authentic as possible. The used of simplified language for instructional purposes has to be minimized since authentic language can be motivating for students particularly when keyed to a subject they are concerned about.
According to Robinson (1991:54) authentic materials in ELT refers to the use of print, audio, video and practical materials originally produced for a purpose other than the teaching of language.
Ellis and Johnsson (1994:157) also agree that authentic material is a kind of material taken from the real world and not specifically create for the purpose of language teaching. A number of criteria need to be considered in selecting authentic texts for classroom use according to McGrath (2006,pp.106) are: a. Relevance (to syllabus, to learners, needs)
b. Intrinsic interest of topic/ theme (interest learners)
c. Cultural appropriateness (religiously, social, political) d. Linguistic demands (language proficiency)
e. Cognitive demands (maturity and knowledge) f. Logistical consideration: e.g. length, legibility/ audibility
g. Quality (as a model for use or as a representative token of a text-type)
h. Exploitability There are several reasons why authentic material is highly recommended. First, authentic texts, audio, video, or written (multimedia), will have a number of features that are often lacking in texts and dialogues created for learning English. Second, the material may provide information about real-life situations or events. In this case, it is the content of the material rather than the language which is useful for the teacher or for the learner. For ESP situation, we must also consider whether the goals that we set are authentic with regard to students’ real-world roles, and whether the goals set are authentic tasks or activities that take place in the learning situation are authentic. In the relation to material development for ESP, Moore (1977:45) suggests six criteria to be applied in creating materials: a. Purpose: Is the purpose clearly defined?
b. Type: Does the exercise type effectively and economically accomplish the purpose?
c. Content: Is the ratio of language given and student task economic? Are instructions to students clear?
d. Interest: Is it interesting?
e. Authentic: Is it a meaningful task? Is it challenging? f. Difficulty: Does it contain distracting difficulties?
2. Materials for self-access centers Self-access materials may be established to serve the whole institution or simply be housed in a corner of a classroom. It is like a library in that it is essentially a material.resource, but need to be specially prepared in categories of materials.
a. Published materials Published materials can be used in various ways. At the very minimum, there will be books for extensive reading, and perhaps graded reading schemes.
b. Authentic materials Authentic materials authentic materials also have a place. Gardner and Miller (1999:102-3) made a list of categories; newspapers, magazines, user manuals; leaflets and brochures; foreign mission information; materials from international companies and airlines; letters, faxes, and e-mails; videos; and songs.
- c. Adapting and supplementing published materials Published materials which have been adapted and supplemented in some way should also be made available.
d. Specially-prepared materials In addition to published and authentic materials, there will always be a need for materials that is more precisely tailored to the needs of students on their own such as practice/ testing activities, learning/ awareness-raising activities, and reflective/ creative activities, or social/ peer matching activities (e.g 8;communication tasks)
- B. Contextualization Contextualization has been recognized as an important concept in ESP classroom and involves some variables. One of the context variables that should heavily be considered in ESP classroom is what the students have to do. Context refers to circumstances or setting in which a person uses a language. Therefore, the key issues related to this matter are the relationship between the students’ special field of study, interest, the place and the nature of language practice. Contextualized instruction should gain the attention of the learners and relate the goals to the learners’ needs.
Contextualization is to ensure relevancy and interest. Little John and Hicks (1987:69-91) characterize contextualized language classroom tasks as follows: a. Learners should be involved in processing language; that is information gap;
- b. Learners should be able to choose what they want to say;
- c. There should be a purpose for communication; d. The task should require learners to deal with language spontaneously;
- The task should be motivating, and observing and should exploit the learners’ prior experiences Phillips (1981:97) suggests four key methodological principles in ESP classroom tasks as:
- a. Reality control, which relates to the manner in which tasks are rendered accessible to the students;
- b. Non-triviality, that is the tasks must be meaningfully generated by the students’ special purposes;
- c. Authenticity, that is the language must be naturally generated by the students’ special purposes;
- d. Tolerance of error, errors which do not impede successful communication must be tolerated.
- To apply these principles, Robinson (1991:49-52) believes that role play and stimulation, case study, project work and oral presentation have been effective and efficient in ESP classroom interactions.
1. Role play and simulation Role play and simulation essentially involve the learners’ looking on a different role and even identify from their usual one.
2. Case study Case studies involve studying the facts of a real-life case, discussing the issues involved and reaching some kind of decision or action plan.
3. Project work Project work is particularly appropriate for EAP, since doing a project may be a requirement for a college student.
4. Oral presentation Another task type which is common to ESP is the oral presentation and this may be part of the other tasks. Oral presentation does not merely involve discussion, but it can also involve all the language skills: writing and reading the information required for the presentation will be surely performed beforehand.
(bhatt)
(bhatt)
Conclusion…..
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Discussing ESP with the reference of Tony Dudley Evans's paper research work we get must idea about ESP. He talks about ESP with various sides and shows the path for language . He also argued for the importance of genre analysis as leads the course design from the initial needs analysis to materials production and lesson planning.
ESP teacher is envisaged by those who argue that ESP teaching should be concerned with rights analysis as well as need analysis . Benesch (1999) argues that ESP teacher should not act as interpreter of the way that the subject teacher communicates information in lectures or his/her priorities in marking.
However , ESP has its own movements, its own journal and it sown procedures, it is still very much part of applied linguistics and continues to be influenced by developments there; it also plays its own role in the development of applied linguistics.
Works Cited
bhatt, yesha. blogspot . 13 july 2016. <https://yeshab68.blogspot.com/2016/07/english-for-specific-purposes.html?m=0>.
hariyani, vaidehi. blogspot. 12 july 2018. <http://vaidehi09.blogspot.com/2016/07/english-for-specific-purposes-tony.html>.
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